KROK 1 Trial Quiz

The kinin–kallikrein system or simply kinin system is a poorly understood hormonal system with limited available research. It consists of blood proteins that play a role in inflammation, blood pressure control, coagulation and pain. Its important mediators, bradykinin and kallidin are vasodilators and act on many cell types. Contrical is a kallikrein-protease inhibitor (KPI).

The common bile duct (duct choledochus) forms in the porta hepatica as the result of merging of the common hepatic duct (ductus hepaticus communis) and the cystic duct (ductus cysticus). It is approximately 5-8cm long.

Conduction is a way the body eliminates heat by means of direct contact with another object from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. Key words: human body in water

Nephrotic syndrome is characterized by large amounts of proteinuria (>3.5g/l), hypoalbuminemia (< 2,5 g/dl), hyperlipidaemia, and edema that begins in the face. Lipiduria (lipids in urine) can also occur. Causes may include focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, membranous nephropathy, minimal change disease, amyloidosis, diabetic glomerulonephropathy. It differs from nephritic syndrome in that there are no red blood cells in the urine.

Hippuric acid is a carboxylic acid and organic compound. It is found in urine and is formed from the combination of benzoic acid and glycine. Levels of hippuric acid rise with the consumption of phenolic compounds (such as fruit juice, tea and wine). The phenols are first converted to benzoic acid, and then to hippuric acid and excreted in urine. Cirrhosis is a condition in which the liver does not function properly due to long-term damage. This damage is characterized by the replacement of normal liver tissue by scar tissue.

The organ of Corti, or spiral organ, is the receptor organ for hearing and is located in the mammalian cochlea. High frequency sound is located near the base of the cochlea (near the round and oval windows), while low frequency sound is located near the apex (helicotrema) and the middle frequency sound, middle part of the helix.

European black widow (widow spider) bears different names in different regions. Throughout the Central Asia and Eastern Slavic region, the name karakurt is most often applied. The words kara, means "black", and kurt, means "wolf" come from the Turkish language. It is identified by the thirteen spots which are found on its dorsal abdomen. These spots are usually red in colour, but may also be yellow or orange.

Fibrosing alveolitis (interstitial pneumonia) is a form of lung disease characterized by progressive scarring of both lungs. The scarring (fibrosis) involves the supporting framework (interstitium) of the lung. It is also characterized by interstitial edema, infiltration of tissue by lymphocytes, macrophages, plasmocytes eventually causing pulmonary fibrosis, panacinar emphysema.

Evaporation is a way the body dissipates heat to the environment via sweat or evaporation of moisture from the skin and respiratory tract mucous membranes (wet heat loss). It is closely related to relative humidity.

Cholecalciferol, also known as vitamin D3 is a type of vitamin D which is made by the skin when exposed to sunlight. It is converted in the liver to calcifediol (25-hydroxyvitamin D) which is then converted in the kidney to calcitriol. Calcitriol is a synthetic physiologically-active analog of vitamin D, specifically the vitamin D3 form. Calcitriol regulates calcium in vivo by promoting absorption in the intestine, reabsorption in the kidneys, and, along with parathyroid hormone, regulation of bone growth. It is used to treat and prevent vitamin D deficiency and associated diseases, including rickets. Osteoectasia is bowing of the bones (bowed legs). Key words: obstruction of Ca absorption.

The AV node serves as an electrical relay station, slowing the electrical current sent by the sinoatrial (SA) node before the signal is permitted to pass down through to the ventricles. This delay ensures that the atria have an opportunity to fully contract before the ventricles are stimulated. When vagus nerve is innervated, this delay is prolonged and hence prevents excitement from the atria to the ventricles.

Pyaemia (or pyemia) is a type of septicaemia that leads to widespread abscesses of a metastatic nature. It is usually caused by the staphylococcus bacteria by pus-forming organisms in the blood. Apart from the distinctive abscesses, pyaemia exhibits the same symptoms as other forms of septicaemia. Septicemia is a serious bloodstream infection. It’s also known as blood poisoning. It occurs when a bacterial infection elsewhere in the body, such as the lungs or skin, enters the bloodstream. This is dangerous because the bacteria and their toxins can be carried through the bloodstream to your entire body. It must be treated in a hospital. If left untreated, septicemia can progress to sepsis.

In type II hypersensitivity (also tissue-specific, or cytotoxic hypersensitivity) the antibodies produced by the immune response bind to antigens on the patient's own cell surfaces (modified receptors of cell membranes).

This phenomenon is called Classical conditioning which refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a flash of light). This can be inhibited by either externally or internally (stranger, sudden noise like the bell, or much stronger smell) which can hinder the conditioned reflex.

Acute cavernous tuberculosis develops due to lyses of caseous necrosis and characterized by formation of round cavities.

This is acute cardiac insufficiency and hence cardiac glycoside should be given. Corglyconum is a short acting cardiac glycoside used for acute cardiac insufficiency treatment and given intravenously. Digitoxin is long acting and usually given orally. Used in case of chronic heart failure.

Penicillins are beta-lactam antibiotics that inhibit the formation of peptidoglycan cross-links in the bacterial cell wall.

Pulmonary embolism (thromboembolism) is a blockage of an artery in the lungs by a substance that has moved from elsewhere in the body (deep veins of lower limb) through the bloodstream (embolism).

Resection of forestomach causes (intrinsic factors) vitamin B12 deficiency leading to megalocytic, macrocytic anaemia. Resection of pyloric part of stomach causes iron deficiency leading to microcytic anaemia. Absorption of Vitamin B12 takes place in the stomach when it has the castle’s intrinsic factor (gastromucoprotein) produced by the parietals cells in the stomach.

The SA node is the heart's natural pacemaker consisting of a cluster of cells that are situated in the upper part of the wall of the right atrium The electrical impulses are generated there with a rate of 60-80/min. During stress sympathetic nervous system produces the dominant effects in the body. Atrioventricular node is 40-60/min and less in HIS bundle.

The back of the neck or more precisely, the nuchal region has the following muscles: Extrinsic - descending part of the trapezius. Intrinsic - transversospinalis muscles divided to: superficial, intermediate and deep groups. Superficial group - splenius muscles - splenius cervicis, splenius capitis. Intermediate group - erector spinae muscles - iliocostalis cervicis, longissimus capitis, longissimus cervicis, spinalis cervicis. Deep group - transversospinalis muscles - semispinalis capitis , semispinalis cervicis (most superficially); multifidus (intermediate); rotatores brevis, rotatores longus (deepest).

DiGeorge syndrome, also known as 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, is a syndrome caused by the deletion of a small segment of chromosome 22. It usually affects the 3rd and 4th pharyngeal pouches which give rise to the thymus, parathyroid glands and portion of the lips, ears and the aortic arch. It is the most disorder of cell mediated immunity. The thymus is usually rudimentary and T cells are deficient or absent in the circulation system. Symptoms may often include congenital heart problems, specific facial features, frequent infections, developmental delay, learning problems and cleft palate. Associated conditions include kidney problems, hearing loss and autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis or Grave’s disease.

Metronidazole is a bactericidal and an antiprotozoal drug used to treat Giardia, Entamoeba, Trichomonas, Vaginalis, Anaerobes (bacteroides, clostridium difficile) and in a combine therapy against H. pylori. Entamoeba histolytica causes amebic dysentery.

Myocardial hypertrophy is the enlargement of the muscular wall of the ventricles which plays a role in the compensatory mechanism of the heart in cardiac failure. Hypertrophy increases the number of contractile elements in myocardial cells as a means of increasing their contractile performance in response to an increase in work demands by the heart.

Meckel diverticulum (also referred to as Meckel's diverticulum) is the most common congenital abnormality of the small intestine; it is caused by an incomplete obliteration of the vitelline duct (i.e. omphalomesenteric duct). It is located in the distal ileum.

Heparin is a natural anticoagulant produced in mast cells and basophils. It is used in the treatment of various thrombotic diseases.

Tubal pregnancy means pregnancy in the uterine tube. The uterine artery divides into descending vaginal branch and ascending branch which supplies the body and fundus of the uterus. The ascending branch bifurcates into ovarian and tubal branches which continue within the broad ligament to supply the medial ends of the ovary and uterine tube and anastomose with the ovarian and tubal branches of the ovarian artery.

The drop in AP will cause a reflex tachycardia, the heart increases its contractility and cardiac output. Vasoconstriction will be minimal in the heart, because the heart needs to pump more i.e. do more work. Therefore, it needs more blood supply. However, vasoconstriction will be maximal in the GIT (bowels), muscles, skin due to centralization of blood flow (i.e. redistribution of blood to important organs like heart, brain).

Spinal cord injury (SCI) often leads to an impairment of the respiratory system. Cervical SCI often leads to an interruption of the descending bulbospinal respiratory pathways, resulting in respiratory muscle paresis and/or paralysis; the more rostral the level of the injury, the greater the likelihood that a major respiratory impairment will occur. The primary cause of death after SCI, regardless of the level of injury, is caused by respiratory insufficiency and complications associated with impaired respiratory function

Loratadine is a tricyclic antihistamine, which acts as a selective blockage of peripheral histamine H1 receptors. It is indicated for the symptomatic relief of allergy such as hay fever (allergic rhinitis), urticaria (hives), chronic idiopathic urticaria, and other skin allergies.

Magnesium sulfate is a drug causing gall bladder contraction and relaxation of sphincter of oddi which promotes bile excretion. It is also a salt laxative acting on all intestine’s secretions. It is a non-absorbable salt that hold water in the intestine by osmosis and distend the bowel, increasing intestinal activity and producing defecation. It decreases blood pressure due to its dehydration property.

The brainstem is made up of the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain. The medulla has many important centers which control vital functions like the respiratory centers, vasomotor center, deglutination center, vomiting center, superior and inferior salivatory neclei, cranial nerve nuclei, vestibular neclei etc.

Anthracosis is defined the asymptomatic, milder type of pneumoconiosis caused by the accumulation of carbon in the lungs due to repeated exposure to air pollution or inhalation of smoke or coal dust particles

The inguinal canals are the two passages in the anterior abdominal wall which in males convey the spermatic cords and the ilioinguinal nerve and in females the round ligament of uterus and the ilioinguinal nerve. If gender of patient is not specified, it usually means in men.

Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase participates in the pentose phosphate pathway, a metabolic pathway that supplies reducing energy to cells (such as erythrocytes) by maintaining the level of the co-enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). The NADPH in turn maintains the level of glutathione in these cells that helps protect the red blood cells against oxidative damage from compounds like hydrogen peroxide. Deficiency of this enzyme, therefore, predisposes RBCs breakdown. It is an inborn error of metabolism.

Metastases of breast (mammary gland) cancer is either local or distant. Local metastases are usually to the lymphatic nodes of breast base, axilla, subclavicular, parasternal nodes. Distant metastases are hematologic ones, 40-50% to the bones, lungs and liver.

The Sense of Smell. Smell depends on sensory receptors that respond to airborne chemicals. In humans, these chemoreceptors are located in the olfactory epithelium — a patch of tissue about the size of a postage stamp located high in the nasal cavity (superior nasal concha or turbinate).

Tachyphylaxis is a quick weakening of the effect, sometimes may occur after first drug introduction (usually connected with substrate exhaustion). In other words, it is a medical term describing an acute, sudden decrease in response to a drug after its administration.

Atherosclerotic cardiosclerosis is a condition in which scar tissue is formed inside the heart muscle. This condition is clinically characterized by a degeneration of the muscle fibers which get subsequently substituted with connective tissue (fibrous). As a result, the number of heart muscle cells is reduced, and the heart valves become gradually deformed. There are two forms visible upon tissue morphology analysis under a microscope: 1.The diffuse form, which occurs as a consequence of the slow stenosis of the coronary arteries (this occurs more rarely). 2.The focal form, when the fibrous tissue is distributed in a non-uniform manner. In some areas, one can observe fibrous strands which usually develop from thrombosis or stenosis of the coronary arteries. The damaged muscle fibers are substituted by fibrous tissue, whereas other fibers become hypertrophic.

Chorioepithelioma or choriocarcinoma is a malignant, trophoblastic cancer, usually of the placenta. Characteristic feature is the identification of intimately related syncytiotrophoblasts and cytotrophoblasts without formation of definite placental type villi.

Mesatonum stimulates alpha-1-adrenoceptors which the activated G-protein increases inositol triphosphate, diacylglycerol production, mobilization of Ca2+ from intracellular organelle, activation phosphorylation of myosin. They cause vasoconstriction, increased arterial pressure, mydriasis, not influencing on accommodation, cause reflective bradycardia.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, also called adrenogenital syndrome, any of a group of inherited disorders that are characterized by enlargement of the adrenal glands resulting primarily from excessive secretion of androgenic hormones by the adrenal cortex.

There is a certain correlation between age of individual and thymus activity. In neonates, it already appears to have a considerable mass of 13.3g on the average. Most intensive growth occurs during first 3 years of life, when the gland doubles in size. Having reached the maximum weight (about 26-30g), the thymus retains it until 20 years of life. After 20 years of age, the thymus parenchyma experiences gradual involution and is substituted with fat tissue. After 50 years of age, the fat constitutes 90% of gland mass. It is therefore normal to see a shadow of thymus gland in a 6 months old child.

The mucosa layer of the bronchi is composed of pseudostratified epithelium with the same cellular composition as the trachea. The basal cells serve as a reserve cell population (regenerative property) that maintains individual cell replacement in the epithelium.

The SA node is the heart's natural pacemaker consisting of a cluster of cells that are situated in the upper part of the wall of the right atrium The electrical impulses are generated there with a rate of 60-80/min. Atrioventricular node is 40-60/min and less in HIS bundle.

Calcium prolongs the duration of muscle cell depolarization before repolarization occurs. Contraction in cardiac muscle occurs due to the binding of the myosin head to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which then pulls the actin filaments to the center of the sarcomere, the mechanical force of contraction. Myofibril activity is required for muscle contraction on the molecular level. When ATP binds to myosin, it separates from the actin of the myofibril, which causes a contraction. Muscle contraction is a complex process regulated by calcium influx and the stimulus of electrical impulses.

Flexor digitorum superficialis (superficial finger flexor) is an extrinsic flexor muscle of the fingers at the proximal interphalangeal joints. The primary function of flexor digitorum superficialis is flexion of the middle phalanges (II-V) of the fingers at the proximal interphalangeal joints, however under continued action it also flexes the metacarpophalangeal joints and wrist joint.

Gamma-Carboxyglutamic acid is a calcium-binding amino acid and is required for the function of vitamin K-dependent proteins. In the blood coagulation cascade, vitamin K is required to introduce gamma-carboxylation of clotting factors II, VII, IX, X and protein Z. In the biosynthesis of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid, the gamma -proton on glutamic acid is abstracted, and CO2 is subsequently added. This process is called carboxylation of glutamine acid.

The Ziehl–Neelsen stain (acid-fast stain) is a special bacteriological stain used to identify acid-fast organisms, mainly Mycobacteria. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the most important of this group because it is responsible for tuberculosis (TB). Acid-fast organisms like Mycobacterium contain large amounts of lipid substances within their cell walls called mycolic acids. These acids resist staining by ordinary methods such as a Gram stain. When counter stain is applied, non-acid-fast bacteria pick it up and become blue (methylene blue) or green (malachite green) when viewed under the microscope. Acid-fast bacteria retain carbol fuchsin so they appear red.

Metronidazole is a bactericidal and an antiprotozoal drug used to treat Giardia, Entamoeba, Trichomonas, Vaginalis, Anaerobes (bacteroides, clostridium difficile) and in a combine therapy against H. pylori. Entamoeba histolytica causes amebic dysentery.

Within the brain, reception of a signal for a stressor by the hypothalamus leads to an increase in activity of the sympathoadrenal system, essentially within the nerves that send signals to the adrenal glands.

A reverse transcriptase (RT) is an enzyme used to generate complementary DNA (cDNA) from an RNA template, a process termed reverse transcription. They are used by retroviruses to replicate their genomes. In the above case, DNA on the matrix of virus mRNA.

Proserin is a synthetic compound that is also a carbamic acid ester and it reversibly inhibits acetylcholine esterase (AChE) and this helps stimulation of intestinal peristalsis and tonus of urinary bladder.

Blood minute volume is the amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in one minute. It is the product of stroke volume and heart rate. Normal value is 5L/ ventricle/minute. If blood minute volume is 5L/m, the volume pumped through the pulmonary vessels (lung vessels) per minute by the right ventricle equals 5L. Same for any given value.

Dehydration occurs when the extracellular fluid and sodium ions are lost. Iso-osmolar dehydration- is based on proportional volume decrease of fluids and electrolytes e.g. Acute renal failure, blood loss, burns etc. Hypoosmolar dehydration (salt deficit) develops due to diarrhoea, vomiting, sweating, adrenal insufficiency etc. Hyperosmolar dehydration (water deficit) develops due to the loss of the fluid which lacks electrolytes e.g. in diabetes insipidus, hyperventilation.

When sufficient oxygen is not present in the muscle cells for further oxidation of pyruvate and NADH produced in glycolysis, NAD+ is regenerated from NADH by reduction of pyruvate to lactate. Pyruvate is converted to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.

Actinomycosis is a rare infectious bacterial disease caused by Actinomyces species. They are all gram-positive. Actinomyces species are facultatively anaerobic (except A. meyeri and A. israelii both obligate anaerobe), and they grow best under anaerobic conditions. Actinomyces species may form endospores, and, while individual bacteria are rod-shaped, Actinomyces colonies form fungus-like branched networks of hyphae. The disease is characterised by the formation of painful abscesses in the mouth, lungs, breast, or gastrointestinal tract. Histological examination reveals drusen of a fungus, plasmatic and xanthome cells, macrophages.

The presence of excess fats in stool is called STEATORRHEA caused by indigestion of fats. Therefore, obturation of bile is more applicable here.

Somites are bilaterally paired blocks of paraxial mesoderm that form along the head-to-tail axis of the developing embryo in segmented animals. They subdivide into the sclerotomes (tendon, cartilage, bone), myotomes (muscles) and dermatomes (dermis) that give rise to the vertebrae of the vertebral column, rib cage, and part of the occipital bone; skeletal muscle, cartilage, tendons, and skin (of the back). From above options, best choice is Dermis.

In the blood coagulation cascade, vitamin K is required to introduce gamma-carboxylation of clotting factors II, VII, IX, X and protein Z. In the biosynthesis of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid, the gamma -proton on glutamic acid is abstracted, and CO2 is subsequently added. This process is called carboxylation of glutamine acid. Therefore, vitamin K deficiency may cause disorder of blood coagulation.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is an annular (ring-shaped), pentameric protein found in blood plasma, whose levels rise in response to inflammation. It is an acute-phase protein of hepatic origin that increases following interleukin-6 secretion by macrophages and T cells. CRP is synthesized by the liver in response to factors released by macrophages and fat cells (adipocytes). Key words: rheumatism in its active phase.

A neuromuscular junction (or myoneural junction) is a chemical synapse formed by the contact between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It is at the neuromuscular junction that a motor neuron is able to transmit a signal to the muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction. Motor neurons release acetylcholine (Ach) which diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Neuromuscular junction diseases can be of genetic (Duchenne muscular dystrophy) and autoimmune (myasthenia gravis) origin.

In Precipitation in agar (Precipitation gel reaction): antibody is incorporated into agar and antigen is inoculated i.e. antibody is the antidiphtheric antitoxic serum and the antigen is the diphtheria agent, inoculated in the nutrient agar. Antigen and antibody are placed in different wells in agar and allowed to diffuse and form concentration gradients. Where optimal proportions occur, lines of precipitate form. This method indicates whether antigens are identical, related but not identical or not related. Areas of medium turbidity indicate where the antibody specific for the antigen have cross-linked.

The walls of veins have three layers, or coats: an inner layer, or tunica intima; a middle layer, or tunica media; and an outer layer, or tunica adventitia. The tunica intima differs from the inner layer of an artery: the elastic membrane lining the artery is absent in the vein, which consists primarily of endothelium and scant connective tissue. The tunica media, which in an artery is composed of muscle (for muscular artery) and elastic fibres (for elastic artery), is thinner in a vein and contains less muscle and elastic tissue. Muscles are absent in case of non-muscular veins. The outer layer (tunica adventitia) consists chiefly of connective tissue and is the thickest layer of the vein. This is less in artery.

M-cholinoreceptors increase muscle tonus of internal organs. Therefore, blocking this receptor will relieve the bronchospasm.

Nicotinamide (NAM), also known as niacinamide, is a form of vitamin B3 found in food and used as a dietary supplement and medication. As a supplement, it is used by mouth to prevent and treat pellagra (niacin deficiency). Nicotinamide is the preferred treatment for niacin deficiency (pellagra). A patient's diagnosis of pellagra is based on their history, as well as a presence of dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia. While nicotinic acid (niacin) may be used, nicotinamide has the benefit of not causing skin flushing.

The resection of the pyloric part of stomach reduces the gastric acid level thereby reducing iron absorption (iron requires an acidic medium to be absorbed). Iron is needed for heme synthesis (haemoglobin) and hence its deficiency will produce hypochromia and decreased colour index. In addition to this, RBCs become smaller than normal and hence microcytic anaemia.

During the rising phase (depolarization), once the membrane potential becomes positive, the membrane potential continues to depolarize (overshoot) until the peak of the action potential is reached at about +40 or +30 millivolts (mV). This phenomenon is also called reverse polarization.

Anthrax is an infection caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Bacillus anthracis also causes anthrax meningitis. Characterized by an enlarged cherry-red spleen on cut surface, edema of soft meninges of fornix with serous-hemorrhagic inflammation. The bacterium normally rests in spore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. Key words: found buried in soil over years.

Methotrexate is structurally related to folic acid and acts as an antagonist of that vitamin by inhibiting dihydrofolate reductase in humans, which is the enzyme that converts folic acid to its active coenzyme form, tetrahydrofolic acid.

Neurinoma, acoustic (schwannoma) is a benign tumor that may develop on the hearing and balance nerves near the inner ear. The tumor results from an overproduction of Schwann cells -- small sheet-like cells that normally wrap around nerve fibers like onion skin and help support the nerves. Verocay ("Antoni A") bodies are cellular areas surrounded by nuclear palisades (as opposed to less cellular "Antoni B"). This histological pattern is found in Schwannoma neoplasms.

The vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve or CN X, and interfaces with parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. Vagus nerves mediate the lowering of the heart rate and in case of vagotomy (cutting of the vagus nerve), it will lead to increased heart beat (tachycardia) causing deep breathing and infrequent.

Rachitis refers to rickets. Deficiency in vitamin D in conjunction with inadequate sun exposure causes osteomalacia (or rickets when it occurs in children), which is a softening of the bones. Thus deficiency results in impaired bone mineralization and bone damage. Calcitriol (vitamin D3) usually refers specifically to 1,25 (OH) -dihydroxycholecalciferol

Achondroplasia is a genetic disorder that results in dwarfism due to a mutation in the fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) gene. It is inherited from one's parents in an autosomal dominant manner. This therefore means, it is inherited, dominant.

|A|O: |B|O. Gives: |A|B |A|O |B|O |O|O. This is the only combination can produce above blood groups of the children.

Type IV (cell mediated, delayed, cellular cytotoxicity): antibody-independent T-cell mediated reactions e.g. positive mantoux reaction (tuberculin test), Hashimoto’s thyroiditis or transplant rejection etc.

Lobar(Croupous) pneumonia usually has an acute progression. Classically, the disease has four stages: Congestion in the first 24 hours: This stage is characterized histologically by vascular engorgement, intra-alveolar fluid, small numbers of neutrophils, often numerous bacteria. Grossly, the lung is heavy and hyperemic. Red hepatization or consolidation: Vascular congestion persists, with extravasation of red cells into alveolar spaces, along with increased numbers of neutrophils and fibrin. The filling of airspaces by the exudate leads to a gross appearance of solidification, or consolidation, of the alveolar parenchyma. This appearance has been likened to that of the liver, hence the term "hepatization". Grey hepatization: Red cells disintegrate, with persistence of the neutrophils and fibrin. The alveoli still appear consolidated, but grossly the color is paler and the cut surface is drier. Resolution (complete recovery): The exudate is digested by enzymatic activity, and cleared by macrophages or by cough mechanism. Enzymes produced by neutrophils will liquify exudates, and this will either be coughed up in sputum or be drained via lymph.

Increased blood pressure and hypertensive crisis lead to an increase in workload on the heart, increasing the normal pressure the heart is meant to pump against. This increase in workload can lead to cardiac insufficiency as a result of the excessively increased blood pressure.

The axillary artery is a large blood vessel that conveys oxygenated blood to the lateral aspect of the thorax, the axilla (armpit) and the upper limb. Its origin is at the lateral margin of the first rib, before which it is called the subclavian artery. The brachial plexus is a network of nerves formed by the ventral rami of the lower four cervical nerves and first thoracic nerve (C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1). This plexus extends from the spinal cord, through the cervicoaxillary canal in the neck, over the first rib, and into the armpit. It supplies afferent and efferent nerve fibers to the chest, shoulder, arm and hand.

The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells. The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis or meiosis). DNA replication occurs during the S phase.

Osteomyelitis is an inflammation of bone caused by a pyogenic organism. Acute osteomyelitis is the clinical term for a new infection in bone. This infection occurs predominantly in children and is often seeded hematogenously. In adults, osteomyelitis is usually a subacute or chronic infection that develops secondary to an open injury to bone and surrounding soft tissue. Acute osteomyelitis develops within two weeks after disease onset, subacute osteomyelitis within one to several months and chronic osteomyelitis after a few months.

Atherosclerosis is a disease in which plaque (is made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood) builds up inside arteries (coronary artery). LDL transports cholesterol from liver to tissues and hence sometimes called BAD lipoproteins. HDL transports cholesterol from cells and tissues back to the liver. It is also called GOOD lipoproteins.

Glibenclamid, also known as glyburide, is an antidiabetic drug in a class of medications known as sulfonylureas. It is used as an oral hypoglycaemic agent in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus by stimulating the production of endogenic insulin in pancreatic B-cells.

The tympanic cavity is a small cavity surrounding the bones of the middle ear. Within it sit the ossicles, three small bones that transmit vibrations used in the detection of sound. The tympanic cavity is bounded by: 1. The medial wall (or labyrinthic wall) - facing the inner ear- has the oval window and round window, the promontory, and the prominence of the facial canal. 2. The lateral wall (or membranous wall)- facing the outer ear- is formed mainly by the tympanic membrane. 3. The roof of the cavity (tegmental wall) is formed by the tegmen tympani. 4. The floor of the cavity (the jugular wall) consists of the fundus tympani. 5. The posterior wall (or mastoid wall) formed by the entrance to the tympanic antrum, the pyramidal eminence, and the fossa incudes. 6. The anterior wall (or carotid wall) corresponds with the carotid canal.

A pseudounipolar neuron is a kind of sensory neuron in the peripheral nervous system. This neuron contains an axon that has split into two branches; one branch runs to the periphery and the other to the spinal cord (central). The axon has a peripheral branch (from the cell body to the periphery: skin, joint and muscle) and a central branch (from the cell body to spinal cord). The soma (cell body) of each pseudounipolar neuron is located within a dorsal root ganglion (spinal ganglion) The axon leaves the cell body (and out of the dorsal root ganglion) into the dorsal root, where it splits into two branches.

Lumbar puncture is always the at the space between L3 and L4.

Vasopressin causes low diuresis due to increased reabsorption of water leading to increased blood pressure. Hence its decreased will cause reduced tubular reabsorption of water leading to polyuria.

Glibenclamide, also known as glyburide, is an antidiabetic drug in a class of medications known as sulfonylureas. It is used as an oral hypoglycaemic agent in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus by stimulating the production of endogenic insulin in pancreatic B-cells.

Ciprofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone (antibiotics) which inhibit prokaryotic enzymes topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV. They are bactericidal and must not be taken with antacids. They are also contraindicated in pregnant women, nursing mothers and children.

Mechanic insufficiency: This condition occurs when lymph flow is hindered by a mechanical factor. E.g. occlusion of lymphatics by obstructive lymphaginitis, thrombosis of the lymphatics (e.g. during cancer metastasis), filariasis.

Accumulation of uric acid (urate) in the bloodstream and joints is called GOUT which is usually accompanied by pains in the joints. It is produced in the body during the breakdown of PURINES. During urine analysis, its reveals acidity and pink colour.

Characteristic of microcirculation disorders in shock arises due to erectile stage and redistribution of blood (leucocytes) flow reduction in a number of organs (kidney, liver, intestines and others).

Antishock phase of shock is when the compensatory mechanisms of the body are activated to antagonize the devastating effects of shock. Shock is characterized by decreased blood pressure which leads to decrease blood circulation. In antishock phase, stress hormones such as corticosteroids and catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine) and the sympathoadrenal system are fully active to prevent decrease in blood pressure and other characteristics of shock. Catecholamines corticotropin and corticosteroids increase blood pressure, increase glucose concentration, increase respiration (ventilation) etc.

Abstinence syndrome is the deterioration or worsening of a disease after cessation of drug administration.

Phenobarbital causes a decrease in anticoagulant activity as measured by the prothrombin time. Phenobarbital also induces hepatic microsomal enzymes resulting in increased metabolism and decreased anticoagulant response of oral anticoagulants (e.g. Phenylin, warfarin).

The triceps, also triceps brachii is a large muscle on the back (posterior) of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. It is the muscle principally responsible for extension of the elbow joint (straightening of the arm).

Doxycycline is a tetracycline, broad spectrum antibiotic. Its side effects include loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, rash, sensitivity to the sun, hives, temporary discoloring of teeth (goes away with dentist cleaning after the drug is stopped).

In the brain, the corpora quadrigemina (orientative responses) has four colliculi—two inferior-posterior (for hearing), two superior-anterior (for vision)—located on the tectum of the dorsal aspect of the midbrain. They are respectively named the inferior and superior colliculus.

Microscopic examination of specific granulomas: In leprosy (Lepra), the epidermis contains confluent granulomas composed of macrophages, plasma cells and leprous Virchow’s cells. In Rhinoscleroma of nose is characterized by the presence of scleroma (plasma cells, epitheloid cells, lymphocytes, hyaline sphere) and Mikulicz’s cells. In tuberculosis, it is characterized by the presence of central necrosis surrounded by epitheloid cells, lymphocytes, plasma cells and giant langhance cells. Syphilis granuloma is called Gumma which consist of a central area of fibrinoid or caseous necrosis surrounded by mononuclear inflammatory cells.

Rough (granular) endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes that are the sites of protein synthesis. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially prominent in cells such as hepatocytes.

The left colic artery is a branch of the inferior mesenteric artery that runs to the left behind the peritoneum and in front of the psoas major muscle, and after a short, but variable, course divides into an ascending and a descending branch. Left colic artery (sinister colic) ascends leftwards to supply the descending colon and hence its thrombosis can lead to gangrenous lesion of the descending colon.

In a catabolic pathway, adenosine monophosphate can be converted to uric acid, which is excreted from the body in mammals. Uric acid is a product of the metabolic breakdown of purine nucleotides, and it is a normal component of urine. High blood concentrations of uric acid can lead to gout as in the above case.

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a viral infectious disease involving the central nervous system. It is caused by flavivirus transmitted through the bite of an infected tick. A serum sample is obtained as soon as a viral etiology is suspected (acute phase) and a second sample is obtained 10-14days later (convalescent phase).

A fat embolism is a type of embolism in which the embolus consists of fatty material. They are often caused by physical trauma such as fracture, soft tissue trauma, or burns

The presence of excess fats in stool is called STEATORRHEA caused by indigestion of fats. Bile acid helps in emulsification of fats making lipids or fats digestible or absorbable. Therefore, obturation of bile or its deficiency is more applicable here.

Chronic sepsis (chroniosepsis) is a form of sepsis characterized by durably availability, not healing of primary septic focus that progress into a chronic one. In organs and tissues, atrophy and dehydration are expressed. Brown atrophy is found in the liver, myocardium and striated muscles. The spleen is also decreased.

Subacute glomerulonephritis is characterized by symptoms of glomerulonephritis like proteinuria, hematuria, edema and azotemia persisting for many days and even weeks. Renal changes include those of rapidly progressive and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. ‘Demilune’.

A lipoma is a benign tumor made of fat tissue. They are generally soft to the touch, movable, and painless. They usually occur just under the skin, but occasionally may be deeper. Common locations include upper back, shoulders, and abdomen.

Vitamin A (Retinol acetate) is arguably the most important vitamin for effective wound healing due to its role in a process called cellular differentiation. Cellular differentiation is how cells reproduce, which is important for the growth of new blood vessels and tissue structures. Vitamin A can also improve the immune system and lower the risk of harmful infections.

RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA by following a strand of DNA. RNA polymerase is an enzyme that is responsible for copying a DNA sequence into an RNA sequence, during the process of transcription.

The vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve or CN X, and interfaces with parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. Vagus nerves mediate the lowering of the heart rate and hence vagotomy (cutting of the vagus nerve) will lead to increased heart beat (tachycardia) causing deep breathing and infrequent.

Coxsackie A virus (CAV) is a cytolytic Coxsackievirus of the Picornaviridae family, an enterovirus (a group containing the polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, and echoviruses). Coxsackieviruses type are based on their pathogenicity in newborn mice (mouse sucklings). Group A causes flaccid paralysis while group B causes spastic paralysis. Coxsackie A virus causes paralysis and death of the mice; Coxsackie B causes less severe infection in the mice.

Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), or thiamine diphosphate, is a thiamine (vitamin B1) derivative which is produced by the enzyme thiamine diphosphokinase. Thiamine pyrophosphate is a cofactor that is present in all living systems, in which it catalyzes several biochemical reactions. Thiamine pyrophosphate is synthesized in the cytosol and is required in the cytosol for the activity of transketolase and in the mitochondria for the activity of pyruvate-, oxoglutarate- and branched chain keto acid dehydrogenases.

Effect potentiating is the interaction between two or more drugs or agents resulting in a pharmacologic response greater than the sum of individual responses to each drug or agent.

The cause of shock is usually due to decreased cardiac output which may be caused by heart failure or too little venous return. This could be due to reduced blood volume. In a road accident, more blood is lost leading to reduction in blood volume (drop of arterial pressure).

Vestibular nuclei receive impulses concerned with muscle tone and posture fromvestibular apparatus and the cerebellum. The extensor muscles are also for balance (connected with the vestibular apparatus). By activating the ipsilateral (same side) pool of motor neurons innervating extensor muscles in the trunk and limbs, this pathway mediates balance and the maintenance of upright posture.

Mantoux test is a test for immunity to tuberculosis using intradermal injection of tuberculin. However, Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine is a vaccine primarily used against tuberculosis (TB).

Resection of forestomach causes (intrinsic factors) vitamin B12 deficiency leading to megalocytic, macrocytic anaemia. Resection of pyloric part of stomach causes iron deficiency leading to microcytic anaemia.

In eukaryotic cells, transcription occurs in the nucleus and translation takes place in the cytoplasm and the site of translation is on the rough (granular) endoplasmic reticulum aided by ribosomes. Therefore, preventing the attachment of ribosomes to the granular endoplasmic reticulum disturbs protein biosynthesis.

Nephrotic syndrome is characterized by large amounts of proteinuria (>3.5g/l), hypoalbuminemia (< 2,5 g/dl), hyperlipidaemia, and edema that begins in the face. Lipiduria (lipids in urine) can also occur. The oncotic pressure is mainly controlled by plasma proteins and the major protein in plasma is albumin. Therefore, reduced proein content leads to edema due to its excretion. Reduced proteins means drop of oncotic pressure.

Blood group O (I): has no antigen and therefore no agglutination. Blood group A (II): has A antigen, agglutinate with blood group B and blood group O. Blood group B (III): has B antigen, agglutinate with blood group A and blood group O. Blood group AB (IV): has A and B antigen, agglutinate with all blood groups. No antibody present. Antigen D means Rhesus factor and since its negative, it is Rh-

The respiratory centers (RCs) are located in the medulla oblongata and pons, which are parts of the brainstem. The RCs receive controlling signals of neural, chemical and hormonal nature and control the rate and depth of respiratory movements of the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles. Suppression of these centers means ventilatory dysregulation.

Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from certain non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. Gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in liver and in lesser extent, in the cortex of the kidneys. The precursors of gluconeogenesis are lactate, glycerol, amino acids, and with propionate making a minor contribution. The gluconeogenesis pathway consumes ATP, which is derived primarily from the oxidation of fatty acids.

There are two types of fungi: yeasts and molds. Yeasts grow as single cells that reproduce by asexual budding (gemmating). Molds grow as long filaments (hyphae) and form a mat (mycelium). Candida albicans is an oval yeast with a single bud. It is part of the normal flora of mouth (oral cavity), mucous membranes of upper respiratory, gastrointestinal and female genital tracts.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium. It is citrate, catalase, and oxidase positive. It also produces blue green pigment, yellow-green and red-brown pigments.

This is typical of Cushing disease which is caused by a pituitary gland tumor (usually benign) that over-secretes the hormone ACTH, thus overstimulating the adrenal glands' cortisol production (glucocorticoids). Cushing syndrome refers to the signs and symptoms associated with excess cortisol in the body, regardless of the cause. Findings: hypertension, weight gain, moon like face, truncal obesity, buffalo hump, skin changes (thinning striae), osteoporosis, hyperglycemia, amenorrhea, immunosuppression etc.

Etiotropic drugs deals directly with the etiological factor (diphtheria toxin). Antidiphtheric antitoxic serum neutralizes the toxin of diphtheria and is employed both as a curative and as a prophylactic agent.

A paraprotein or myeloma or Plasmocytoma protein is an abnormal immunoglobulin fragment that is produced in excess by an abnormal monoclonal proliferation of plasma cells.Bence Jones Protein are light chains that are excreted in urine associated with plasma cell malignancies (myeloma) and Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia

Hodgkin’s disease or lymphogranulomatosis is a disorder involving primarily the lymphoid tissue. It is characterized by the presence of distinctive neoplastic giant cells called Reed-Sternberg’s cells admixed with a variable inflammatory infiltrate.

The pituitary gland (hypophysis) is a pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the sella turcica. It is composed of three lobes: anterior, intermediate, and posterior. The anterior lobe of the pituitary can be divided into the pars tuberalis (pars glandularis) and pars distalis (pars glandularis) that constitutes ~80% of the gland and the pars intermedia. The pars distalis, (distal part), comprises the majority of the anterior pituitary and is where the bulk of pituitary hormone production occurs. It contains two types of cells including chromophobe cells and chromophil cells. The chromophils can be further divided into acidophils (alpha cells) and basophils (beta cells). These cells all together produce hormones of the anterior pituitary, and release them into the blood stream.

Allotransplant is the transplantation of cells, tissues, or organs, to a recipient from a genetically non-identical donor of the same species. Autotransplantation is from one part of the body to another in the same person e.g. Skin on thigh to face. Xenotransplantation and is from other species e.g. pig to human.

Tellurite agar/Loffler – corynebacterium causes diphtheria.

Tay-Sachs is caused by the absence of a vital enzyme called hexosaminidase-A (Hex-A). Without Hex-A, a fatty substance, or lipid, called GM2 ganglioside accumulates abnormally in cells, especially in the nerve cells of the brain. This ongoing accumulation causes progressive damage to the cells.

The ureters arise from the pelvis of each kidney, and descend on top of the psoas major muscle to reach the brim of the pelvis. They then pass down along the sides of the pelvis, and finally curve forwards and enter the bladder from its left and right sides at the back of the bladder. In females, the ureters run posterior to the broad ligament of uterus and then along the free border of ovary.

Glucocorticoids (prednisolone) stimulate (activate) gluconeogenesis increasing blood sugar levels and lipolysis.

In the absence of any pathological history, the task of inspection could have increased catecholamine concentration in blood due to activation of sympathoadrenal system. This can lead to vasospastic, prinzmetal, variant or rest-angina, due to coronary artery spasm.

Exocytosis is an important process of plant and animal cells as it performs the opposite function of endocytosis. In endocytosis, substances that are external to a cell are brought into the cell. In exocytosis, membrane-bound vesicles containing cellular molecules are transported to the cell membrane. Therefore, Exocytosis is a form of active transport and bulk transport in which a cell transports molecules out of the cell by expelling them through an energy-dependent process.

Atropine Sulfate Injection is an antimuscarinic agent used to treat bradycardia (low heart rate), reduce salivation and bronchial secretions before surgery, as an antidote for overdose of cholinergic drugs or mushroom poisoning.

Gastrin is a peptide hormone that stimulates the secretion of gastric juice by the parietal (oxyntic) cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility. It is released by G cells.

Normal value of protein is 60-80g/L and this means decrease in oncotic pressure thereby leading to increased filtration and decreased reabsorption.

Monocytes are a type of leukocyte, or white blood cell. They are the largest type of leukocyte and can differentiate into macrophages and myeloid lineage dendritic cells. There are at least three subclasses of monocytes in human blood based on their phenotypic receptors. Monocytes are produced by the bone marrow from precursors called monoblasts, bipotent cells that differentiated from hematopoietic stem cells. Monocytes circulate in the bloodstream for about one to three days and then typically move into tissues throughout the body where they differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells.

Digoxin is a long acting cardiac glycoside which has positive inotropic, bathmorphic and tonotropic effects as well as negative chronotropic and dromotropic effects. It is used in the treatment of chronic heart failure and supraventricular tachyarrhythmia.

Myocarditis, also known as inflammatory cardiomyopathy, is inflammation of the heart muscle. Most forms of myocarditis involve the infiltration of heart tissues by one or two types of pro-inflammatory blood cells, lymphocytes and macrophages (histiocytes) plus two respective descendants of these cells, NK cells and macrophages (histiocytes). Eosinophilic myocarditis is a subtype of myocarditis in which cardiac tissue is infiltrated by another type of pro-inflammatory blood cell, the eosinophil. Complications may include heart failure due to dilated cardiomyopathy or cardiac arrest.

?-Carboxyglutamic acid is a calcium-binding amino acid and is required for the function of vitamin K-dependent proteins. In the blood coagulation cascade, vitamin K is required to introduce gamma-carboxylation of clotting factors II, VII, IX, X and protein Z. In the biosynthesis of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid, the gamma -proton on glutamic acid is abstracted, and CO2 is subsequently added. This process is called carboxylation of glutamine acid.

Hydrochlorothiazide is a thiazide diuretic which induces hypokalemia and hyperuricemia and in few cases hyperglycaemia. Decreased levels of potassium predispose a patient to digoxin toxicity.

Glycated haemoglobin is a form of hemoglobin that is bound to glucose. It is formed in a non-enzymatic glycation pathway by hemoglobin's exposure to plasma glucose. It is one of the laboratory tests for diabetes mellitus.

Ammonia intoxication occurs when blood ammonium rises because the capacity to detoxify it by formation of glutamate and glutamine has been exceeded. Glutamine is an amide of glutamic acid which provides a non-toxic storage and transport form of ammonia. Ammonia increases synthesis of glutamine in brain. Accumulation of glutamine in brain results in elevation of osmotic pressure in nervous cells leading to brain edema.

Metaphase is a stage of cell division in which chromosomes are at their most condensed and coiled stage and chromosomes are arranged along the equatorial plane during this phase. Cell division is usually stopped and studied during this phase.

Cells are governed by a cellular chain of commands. Thus DNA-RNA-PROTEINS. Transcription is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA to produce mRNA. Translation is the actual synthesis of a polypeptide (protein) under the direction of mRNA. Usually mRNAs are not ready to be translated immediately being transcribed from DNA. The immature mRNAs contain both INTRONS and EXONS and therefore need to undergo PROCESSING through a process called SPLICING before translation.

Reinfection can be defined as an infection following recovery from or superimposed on infection of the same type.

Basal-cell carcinoma (BCC), also known as basal-cell cancer, is the most common type of skin cancer. It often appears as a painless raised area of skin, which may be shiny with small blood vessels running over it; or it may present as a raised area with ulceration. It grows slowly and can damage the tissue around it but is unlikely to spread to distant areas or to result in death. Key words: basophilic cytoplasm resembling cells of epidermal layer.

Characteristic of microcirculation disorders in shock arises due to erectile stage and redistribution of blood (leucocytes) flow reduction in a number of organs (kidney, liver, intestines and others).

The ribosome is a complex molecule made of ribosomal RNA molecules and proteins that form a factory for protein synthesis in cells.

During sleep, most of the body functions are reduced to basal level or even below the basal level. Therefore, power inputs can be lower than basal level during sleep. During rest, it remains the same or even higher.

High IgM level usually indicates an acute or primary infection and also the first antibody to appear in response to initial exposure to an antigen. Secondary or reinfection show an increase in IgG.

Accumulation is enhancing of the effects in repeated doses that leads to the appearance of toxic effects. Material Accumulation is accumulation of drug in the manner of binding with proteins, phospholipids etc. Functional accumulation is accumulation of the drugs effect, in spite of its elimination. Over here, digitalis (foxglove) are fully absorbed and firmly connected with proteins (about 95% of plasma proteins). These drugs are accumulated.

Arterial hyperemia is a typical form of violation of the local circulation, characterized by an increase in the blood supply of the organ or tissue due to increased blood flow through the arterial vessels (aorta, arterioles, arteries and arterial capillaries). The affected tissue is pink or red in appearance and warm to the touch. In venous hyperaemia (congestion), its cold to the touch.

Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy intake, below the level needed to maintain an organism's life. It can be complete or incomplete (quantitative and qualitative). Starvation is considered complete if only water enters the organism; incomplete, if an insufficient amount of food is entering the organism in relation to the general expenditure of energy; and absolute, when neither water nor food enters the organism. Esophageal stenosis (narrowing of esophagus) will greatly reduce the amount of food taken thereby leading to incomplete starvation. It is usually marked by a decrease in body mass (weight).

Sickle cell disease is a group of disorders that affects hemoglobin, the molecule in red blood cells that delivers oxygen to cells throughout the body. People with this disorder have atypical hemoglobin molecules called hemoglobin S, which can distort red blood cells into a sickle, or crescent, shape. It is also a point mutation an amino acid replacement in beta chain of haemoglobin (substitution of glutamic acid with valine). Key words: erythrocytes are of modified form, low haemoglobin.

Pleiotropy occurs when one gene influences two or more seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits. Thus, one gene defect contributes to multiple phenotypic effects. Marfan syndrome/Hartnup is a genetic disorder of the connective tissue and this defect is causing all the above phenotypic disorders.

There are three regulatory molecules that stimulate gastric juice secretion (acetylcholine, histamine, gastrin) and one regulatory molecule that inhibits its secretion (somatostatin). Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that is released by enteric neurons. Histamine is a paracrine that is released from ECL (enterochromaffin-like) cells. Gastrin is a hormone that is released by G cells, endocrine cells that are located in the gastric epithelium. Somatostatin is also secreted by endocrine cells of the gastric epithelium; it can act as either a paracrine or a hormone.

Primordial features include: Dormant, small, only one layer of flat granulosa cells. Primary features include: Mitotic cells, cuboidal (1-2 layers) granulosa cells. Secondary features are: Presence of theca cells, multiple layers of granulosa cells.

Blood loss during trauma results in loss of all components of blood (cells and liquid). Packed cell volume or haematocrit value will therefore decrease. Erythropoiesis cannot replace all cells lost in 24hours so the packed cell volume will not be up to 40% after 24hours of blood loss of 750ml. It will actually be lower hence the best answer here will be 30%.

Thyroid hormone increases sensitivity of beta adrenergic receptors for catecholamines. These exert their effect on the heart by binding to beta1-adrenorecptors, which in turn increases the heart rate. Increase in heart rate shows a decrease in R-R interval on the ECG. This can lead to systemic hypertension and high output heart failure.

Stromal vascular carbohydrate degenerations develop due to disturbance of glycosaminoglycans and glycoproteins metabolism. When glycoprotein metabolism is disturbed, chromotropic substances are released from the protein bonds. They accumulate in the main substance of the connective tissue. Collagen fibers change into mucus-like mass.The condition results in colliquative necrosis with formation of cavities filled with mucus.

Type IV (Delayed hypersensitivity or Cell-mediated): contact dermatitis, Graft-versus-host disease, multiple sclerosis. Response is delayed and does not involve antibodies. Type I (immediate, anaphylactic, atopic): Allergic and atopic disorders (e.g. Rhinitis, hay fever, asthma); Anaphylaxis. Type II (Cytotoxic Reaction/Antibody-dependent): acute haemolytic transfusion reactions, autoimmune haemolytic anaemia, Erythroblastois fetalis, Good pasture syndrome, Gravis disease, Myasthenia gravis. Disease tends to be specific to tissue or site where antigen is found. Type III (Immune Complex Reaction): Arthus reaction, SLE, serum sickness, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, Polyarteritis nodosa etc. Can be associated with vasculitis and systemic manifestation.

Saliva and tears contain antibacterial enzymes such as lysozyme which destroys the cellular walls of bacteria by destroying the peptidoglycan layer.

Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive, round-shaped bacterium. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction and is a facultative anaerobe that can grow without the need for oxygen. S. aureus produces various enzymes such as coagulase (bound and free coagulases) which clots plasma and coats the bacterial cell, probably to prevent phagocytosis. S. aureus appears as staphylococci (grape-like clusters) when viewed through a microscope, and has large, round, golden-yellow colonies, often with hemolysis, when grown on blood agar plates.

Ozheshko is to Spores and Burri gins is to Capsule.

A spotted fever is a type of tick-borne disease which presents on the skin. They are all caused by bacteria of the genus Rickettsia. Typhus is a group of similar diseases also caused by Rickettsia bacteria, but spotted fevers and typhus are different clinical entities. The typical lesion caused by rickettsiae is endothrombovasculitis. Damage to the vessels of the skin results in the characteristic rash and edema and hemorrhages caused by the increased capillary permeability. In Rickettsioses, there is also the formation of typhus nodules in the small vessels which results in a proliferative destructive thrombovasculitis with formation of perivascular granulomas (popov’s granuloma) consisting of macrophages, lymphocytes and plasma cells.

Epispadias is a rare type of malformation of the penis in which the urethra ends in an opening on the upper aspect of the penis. Hypospadias is a congenital condition in males in which the opening of the urethra is on the underside of the penis.

Glomerular filtration is the renal process whereby fluid in the blood is filtered across the capillaries of the glomerulus. Glomerular filtration occurs due to the pressure gradient in the glomerulus. Increased blood volume and increased blood pressure (increased hydrostatic pressure) will increase GFR. A decrease in oncotic pressure increases filtration rate. Oncotic pressure is normally determined by protein synthesis and since there is starvation, protein synthesis (Albumin) is reduced.

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are a class of medication used to treat depression. The monoamines neurotransmitters are Dopamine, Serotonin, Noradrenaline, Adrenaline and Histamine.

When all fibers of the deltoid muscle contract simultaneously, it is the prime mover of arm abduction along the frontal plane which is innervated by the axillary nerve. Abduction is any motion of the limbs or other body parts that pulls away from the midline of the body. Swinging the hands from the side of the body up to the shoulder or higher is abduction. Adduction is the movement of a body part toward the body’s midline. So, if a person has their arms straight out at the shoulders and brings them down to their sides, it is adduction.

Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. In male humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as testes and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair, facial hair (sideburns, beard, moustache).

This is a Hyperchloremic acidosis which is a form of metabolic acidosis associated with a normal anion gap, a decrease in plasma bicarbonate concentration, and an increase in plasma chloride concentration Metabolic acidosis occurs when the body produces too much acid, or when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body. The main causes are increased anion gap such as diabetic ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, chronic kidney failure, intoxication, hyperchloremic acidosis etc.Causes of hyperchloremic acidosis include severe diarrhea, laxative abuse, and kidney problems can cause lower levels of bicarbonate, the base that helps neutralize acids in blood.

The psoas major is a long fusiform muscle located on the side of the lumbar region of the vertebral column and brim of the lesser pelvis. It joins the iliacus muscle to form the iliopsoas. The psoas major is a major component of the renal bed together with other muscles such as the diaphragm, quadratus lumborum and transverse abdominis muscle.

Demodicosis, also called demodectic mange or red mange, is caused by a sensitivity to and overpopulation of Demodex canis as the hosts immune system is unable to keep the mites under control. D. folliculorum and D. brevis are typically found on humans. D. folliculorum is adapted to live inside hair follicles, and therefore is thin and worm-like, with short legs. Adults have four pairs of legs, larvae and nymphs have only three pairs. D. folliculorum has a rudimentary gut, and no anus.

Narcotic analgesics intoxication is characterized by unconsciousness, normal or increased reflexes, miosis, bradycardia, cheyne-stokes breath, retention of urine, spasm of intestine and bowel. Treatment include Potassium permanganate, Naloxone and Atropine.

I don’t really see the correlation between the question and the answer. Neurogenetics studies the role of genetics in the development and function of the nervous system. As the name implies, it draws aspects from both the studies of neuroscience and genetics, focusing in particular how the genetic code an organism carries affects its expressed traits. Mutations in this genetic sequence can have a wide range of effects on the quality of life of the individual. Neurological diseases, behavior and personality are all studied in the context of neurogenetics.

The peripheral nervous system is a network of 43 pairs of motor and sensory nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system) to the entire human body. These nerves control the functions of sensation, movement and motor coordination. They are fragile and can be damaged easily. Injury to the peripheral nerve network can happen through: Laceration (a cut or tear in the nerve tissue), Severe bruising (contusion), Gunshot wounds, Stretching (traction), Drug injection injury, Electrical injury etc. People with traumatic nerve damage can experience severe, unrelenting pain, burning sensation, tingling or total loss of sensation in the part of the body affected by the damaged nerve.

Isozymes, also known as isoenzymes are enzymes that differ in amino acid sequence but catalyze the same chemical reaction. The existence of isozymes permits the fine-tuning of metabolism to meet the particular needs of a given tissue or developmental stage (for example lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)).

The liver is the primary site for protein synthesis and hence a dysfunction of it will cause hypoproteinemia (hypoalbuminemia). Absolute deals with the primary cause of hypoproteinemia which is the liver while in relative, it deals with other causes or pathologies like renal lesions.

Trichomonas vaginalis is a sexually transmitted infection of the urogenital tract, a common cause of vaginitis in women, while men with this infection can display symptoms of urethritis. 'Frothy', greenish vaginal discharge with a 'musty' malodorous smell is characteristic. A smear from vagina contains pyriform protozoa with a spine, flagella at their front; there is also an undulating membrane. It is also a pear-shaped organism with a central nucleus and four anterior flagella.

Protein mechanism is one of the molecular mechanisms of cell injury. The protein mechanism of damage includes: Inhibition of enzymes (reversible and irreversible), Denaturation – violation of native structure of proteins ande Proteolysis- that is carried out under the action of lysosomal enzymes.